[16] Darwin's original thesis was that emotions evolved via natural selection and therefore have cross-culturally universal counterparts. Régulation cognitive des émotions Stratégies adaptatives 2. The most accepted definition is the ability to process information through perception (stimuli that we receive through our different senses), knowledge acquired through experience, and our personal characteristics that allow us to integrate all of this information to evaluate and interpret our world. Reisenzein, R., & Weber, H. (2009). © 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. | See also | References . In this experiment, people had their brains scanned while viewing pictures of people they hated. Pain is a homeostatic emotion telling us "Things aren't right here. The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life, 1993). Learn more. Similarly,, Gross defines emotion regulation as attempts individuals make to influence which types of emotions they … Yet other approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary gestalt therapy[19]). J.J. English thesaurus is mainly derived from The Integral Dictionary (TID). Many sociologists and anthropologists contend that emotions are socially … For example an irritable person is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others do. The English word games are: The latter could be regarded as a long term tendency to have an emotion regarding a certain object rather than an emotion proper (though this is disputed). The James-Lange theory posits that emotional experience is largely due to the experience of bodily changes. In Handbook of Human Affective Neuroscience, Cambridge University Press. Human sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms. In economics, the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, emotions are analyzed in some sub-fields of microeconomics, in order to assess the role of emotions on purchase decision-making and risk perception. View Record in Scopus … Often theories are not mutually exclusive and many researchers incorporate multiple perspectives in their work. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz (2004) Gut Reactions. For example, (post-)modern marriage is, on one hand, based on the emotion of love and on the other hand the very emotion is to be worked on and regulated by it. Basic and complex categories, where some are modified in some way to form complex emotions (e.g. This theory suggests that emotions are influenced and caused by events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors. In F. Paglieri, L. Tummolini, R. Falcone, & M. Miceli (Eds.). The motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity, and motion with pre-set body movements and programmed postures. Blâme de soi 8. 2001) was developed to assess nine different cognitive emotion regulation strategies people use when they experience negative life events or situations. In literature and film-making, the expression of emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, melodrama, and romance. How emotion shapes behavior: Feedback, anticipation, and reflection, rather than direct causation. ), or at least a core subset of emotions, presuppose for their existence certain cognitions about the eliciting … Moors, A., Ellsworth, P. C., Scherer, K. R., & Frijda, N. H. (2013). The neurobiology of emotion. Alternatively, analogous to the way primary colors combine, primary emotions could blend to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience. We begin to feel a homeostatic emotion when one of these systems drifts out of balance, and the feeling prompts us to do what is necessary to restore that system to balance. Cognitive change is often used to decrease the emo-tional response. Emotion is also studied in non-human animals in ethology, a branch of zoology which focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior. Some of the most influential theorists on emotion from the twentieth century have died in the last decade. It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences, psychology, and cognitive science. Where James argued that emotional behaviour often precedes or defines the emotion, Cannon and Bard argued that the emotion arises first and then stimulates typical behaviour. Other research in this area focuses on physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see affect display). In K. R. Scherer, A. Schorr, & T. Johnstone (Eds.). Here are the 5 stages of the cognitive mediational theory of emotion and what to expect in each stage. Castelfranchi, C., & Miceli, M. (2009). The subscale (ranging from 4 to 20). This is based on the Latin emovere, where e- (variant of ex-) means 'out' and movere means 'move'. (1988). Introduce theory of emotion . Définition mécanismes cognitifs et physiologiques d'adaptation à l'environnement Physiologiques: modifications physiques de l'agent Cognitifs: influence sur la prise de décision, l’attention, l’interprétation, etc. In neuroscience sub-fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. Emotions as metarepresentational states of mind. [1] The related term "motivation" is also derived from movere. Émotions et cognition 185 3.1 Émotions et mémoire 185 3.2 Émotion et raison 187 3.3 L’amour 187 ChApitre 10 lA personnAlité 195 1. Klaus Scherer, 2005) place emotions within a more general category of 'affective states' where affective states can also include emotion-related phenomena such as pleasure and pain, motivational states (e.g. We also see sophisticated theories in the works of philosophers such as René Descartes[2], Baruch Spinoza[3] and David Hume. You can also try the grid of 16 letters. The semantic cognition network uses a set of algorithms to process the semantic units. Emotion regulation allows us to respond adaptively to these affective events—to keep cool under stress, emerge resilient from tribulations, and resist harmful temptations. La composante cognitive correspond aux changements d’état mental liés à l’émotion. Réaction affective transitoire d'assez grande intensité, habituellement provoquée par une stimulation venue de l'environnement. Le but de ce premier chapitre est donc de définir les différents processus (ou facettes) qui constituent l’émotion et leurs interactions. This theory posits the different emotions have different reciprocal effects. Ellsworth, P. C., & Scherer, K. R. (2003). Neuroscience was formally recognized as a unified discipline in 1971. Appraisal considered as a process of multilevel sequential checking. Such a model can be used to simulate or predict human behavior or performance on tasks similar to the ones modeled. For instance, when experiencing a stressful situation, one might be inclined to ruminate and blame or to accept or positively reappraise the situation (Garnefski & … The Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. For example, the human emotion of love is proposed to have evolved from paleocircuits of the mammalian brain (specifically, modules of the cingulate gyrus) which facilitate the care, feeding, and grooming of offspring. First, the paper discusses some fundamental issues … In law, which underpins civil obedience, politics, economics and society, evidence about people's emotions is often raised in tort law claims for compensation and in criminal law prosecutions against alleged lawbreakers (as evidence of the defendant's state of mind during trials, sentencing, and parole hearings). According to the two-factor theory, proposed by Schachter and Singer, the stimulus leads to the arousal that is labeled using the cognition that leads to the emotion. Définition de cognition Etymologie: du latin cognitio, action de connaître, dérivé de cognoscere, chercher à savoir, s'enquérir; prendre connaissance, par les yeux ou par ouï-dire. Chez les enfants, il existe trois grandes familles de troubles cognitifs dont les causes et les conséquences sont totalement indépendantes. : cognitive development; cognitive functioning. Delvolvé N., Tous les élèves peuvent apprendre.Aspects psychologiques et ergonomiques des apprentissages scolaires, Hachette Education, 2005. The Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, so this position is known as the James-Lange theory. The results showed increased activity in the medial frontal gyrus, right putamen, bilaterally in the premotor cortex, in the frontal pole, and bilaterally in the medial insula of the human brain. Freitas-Magalhães, A. Personality and emotion. By using our services, you agree to our use of cookies. A sophisticated defense of this view is found in philosopher Jesse Prinz's book Gut Reactions and psychologist James Laird's book Feelings. In the 2000s, in research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display and model emotions [20]. There is rather less agree-ment on the general form such a theory should take. This a communication-based theory developed by Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano (1996), that looks at the causes, structures, and consequences of emotional experience (especially in work contexts.) Change the target language to find translations. (1997). 2981-2990. [citation needed], Robert Plutchik proposed a three-dimensional "circumplex model" which describes the relations among emotions. This theory and its derivatives state that a changed situation leads to a changed bodily state. In the field of communication sciences, critical organizational scholars have examined the role of emotions in organizations, from the perspectives of managers, employees, and even customers. In linguistics, the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. Such cognitive activity may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing. Presumably, before the mammalian brain, life in the non-verbal world was automatic, preconscious, and predictable. Most people believe that emotions give rise to emotion-specific actions: i.e. Another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions. Yet again, if one can have the emotion without the corresponding behavior then we may consider the behavior not to be essential to the emotion. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman (Eds. Berkeley: LeDoux, J. E. (1986). aggression) in a number of unrelated animals. Gratitude impels a beneficiary to reward those who helped him in the past. Contact Us Psychomédia. James further claims that 'we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and neither we cry, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be.'. Appraisal processes in emotion. For more information see evolution of emotion. Ce verbe peut se traduire par : savoir, comprendre ou connaître. Toute activité intellectuelle suppose la gestion et l’intervention simultanée de plusieurs réseaux neuronaux. Such are anger, pity, fear and the like, with … If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (e.g., dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures, and postures. Emotions exert an incredibly powerful force on human behavior. : Parler avec émotion de quelqu'un. The behavioural components is how you express and show your emotion. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing the fear of terrorism. For example, you might remind yourself that “it’s only a test” ~m2!, rather than seeing the exam as a measure of your value as a human being ~m1!. Definition of Emotion Regulation. Another cognitive theory is the Singer-Schachter theory. 21. surprise) where others can last years (e.g. (Eds.). Un être cognitif a la capacité d'apprendre et organiser ses connaissances, il est doué de raison sans tenir compte de l'affectif. Définitions de l'émotion Le terme émotion vient de movere, «mouvoir au-delà» ou «émouvoir». Une des voies d’accès à la compréhension de ce qu’est l’émotion consiste à identifier les différentes émotions. Certaines personnes peuvent-être amenées à cumuler plusieurs troubles. Définitions de émotion. Rudolph, U., Roesch, S., Greitemeyer, T., & Weiner, B. No definitive taxonomy of emotions exists, though numerous taxonomies have been proposed. Les émotions ne sont pas des moyens de cognition. This attribute depends, at least in part, on our ability to regulate responses to life's affective pushes and pulls. Définition cognitif: Est cognitif ce qui a trait avec la cognition et donc ce qui appartient ou est lié à la connaissance, l'apprentissage et la pensée. This theory has been utilized by numerous researchers to better understand emotion from a communicative lens, and was reviewed further by Howard M. Weiss and Daniel J. Beal in their article, Reflections on Affective Events Theory published in Research on Emotion in Organizations in 2005. Ces deux facteurs comprennent: La tendance menaçante du stress pour l'individu, et; L'évaluation des ressources nécessaires pour minimiser, tolérer ou éliminer le facteur de stress et son effet. Some have also argued for the existence of meta-emotions which are emotions about emotions., "Meta-emotions". Emotions are thought to be related to activity in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around us. Anger protects a person against cheaters who accept a favor without reciprocating, by making him want to punish the ingrate or sever the relationship. In R. J. Davidson, K. R. Scherer, & H. H. Goldsmith (Eds.). Les troubles cognitifs peuvent être congénitaux ou survenir dans l’enfance ou à l’âge adulte. Le réseau de cognition sémantique fait appel à un ensemble d'algorithmes pour traiter les unités sémantiques. Furthermore, animals undergo emotions comparable to our own (see emotion in animals). Description. rigoureuse, définition pratique et concrète qui rend le concept opérationnel pour les applications et interventions cliniques. A., Schwartz, A., Ho, K., & Ritov, I. ○ Lettris Positive and irrelevant stimuli immediately end the stages of emotion that are encountered. Withdraw and protect. Historique École Darwinisme: émotions basiques en réponse à une stimulation École Jamesienne: troubles organiques à l'origine des émotions Définition : (fr-rég|k?g.ni.sj??) Exactly how emotion exerts influence over our memories operation and ability is of particular interest. Stage #1 – Primary Appraisal In this stage, an individual encounters a stimulus and analyzes it. If a stimulus is appraised as being dangerous, then it will … [citation needed]. [citation needed], Another important means of distinguishing emotions concerns their occurrence in time. Reisenzein, R. (2006). Junge, M., & Reisenzein, R. (2013). ), or at least a core subset of emotions, presuppose for their existence certain cognitions about the eliciting events. : Classic and Contemporary Readings (Oxford, 2003). Privacy policy Recentrage positif 5. Marsella, S., Gratch, J., & Petta, P. (2010). Cognitive definition, of or relating to cognition; concerned with the act or process of knowing, perceiving, etc. Enfin, dans le domaine de la cognition, de l’analyse du raisonnement à celle de la cognition incarnée (dont vous trouverez une définition dans cet article). Lazarus a dit que l'évaluation cognitive se produit quand une personne estime deux facteurs importants qui contribuent à sa réponse au stress. Ces pensées automatiques sont en lien avec des représentations mentales à propos de la personne et du monde extérieur qui, elles, sont inconscientes : les schémas. However, it also may be used to magnify the emotional response, … Cognitive: The final component is the cognitive evaluation of the event itself, which ultimately leads to a conclusion. The cognitive-motivational compound of emotional experience. This theoretical frame also emphasizes time in that human beings experience what they call emotion episodes - a “series of emotional states extended over time and organized around an underlying theme”. Lettris is a curious tetris-clone game where all the bricks have the same square shape but different content. For example, before sitting an exam, your body feels sweaty, and your heart beats faster. [citation needed] Robert Plutchik propos… Recentrage sur la planification 6. An influential theory here is that of Lazarus. A distinction is then made between emotion episodes and emotional dispositions. The cognitive level of analysis aims to study the inner processes of the mind and how cognitive processes guide behaviour. Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. With a SensagentBox, visitors to your site can access reliable information on over 5 million pages provided by Sensagent.com. In this way, emotions serve to explain and organize our own actions to us. A meta-analytic review of help giving and aggression from an attributional perspective: Contributions to a general theory of motivation. The cognitive component is described as how we interpret emotions and think about situations. ), or at least a core subset of emotions, presuppose for their existence certain cognitions about the eliciting … Chap. It is widely accepted that emotion does indeed influence the cognitive processes of memory and much research has been undertaken to investigate this further. Indirect scaling methods for testing quantitative emotion theories. [4] Such experiments also have therapeutic implications (e.g. [11][12], Another neurological approach, described by Bud Craig in 2003, distinguishes between two classes of emotion. Perspectives on emotions from evolution theory were initiated in the late 19th century with Charles Darwin's book The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. More recent research has shown that some of these limbic structures are not as directly related to emotion as others are, while some non-limbic structures have been found to be of greater emotional relevance. The James-Lange theory is often misunderstood because it seems counter-intuitive. Plutchik, R. (1980). See more. Categorization based on duration: Some emotions occur only while skipping over a period of seconds (e.g. In political science, emotions are examined in a number of sub-fields, such as the analysis of voter decision-making. surprise) where others can last years (e.g. The web service Alexandria is granted from Memodata for the Ebay search. Danger expectancies and insight in acrophobia. Cognitive reappraisal of emotion: a meta-analysis of human neuroimaging studies. Subjectively salient dimensions of emotional appraisal. cognitive definition: 1. connected with thinking or conscious mental processes: 2. connected with thinking or conscious…. The vertical dimension represents intensity, and the circle represents degrees of similarity among the emotions. One theory of how emotion may affect the cognitive process … Les réseaux neuronaux du cerveau supportent les fonctions cognitives. "[13][14], There are some theories on emotions arguing that cognitive activity in the form of judgements, evaluations, or thoughts is necessary in order for an emotion to occur. Lange was a Danish physician and psychologist. ○ Wildcard, crossword Mellers, B. Définition. Individual subscale scores were ob- At first measurement, the sample comprised 611 adults from tained by summing the scores belonging to the particular the general population ranging between 18 and 65 years. A prominent philosophical exponent is Robert C. Solomon (e.g. Memory could be considered as a fragmented stage by stage process where encoding is the first stage of the … D'autres concepts comme l'attitude et le sentiment englobe la cognition et l'émotion. 1.1. Basic and complex categories, where some are modified in some way to form complex emotions (e.g. This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state, a desired emotion is induced. The theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. ", http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.12/love.html. Tips: browse the semantic fields (see From ideas to words) in two languages to learn more. Depending on the particular school's general emphasis either on cognitive component of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion [17] different schools of psychotherapy approach human emotions differently. Typically it is assumed that these emotion-relevant cognitions determine, alone or together with noncognitive mental states (in particular, desires), whether or not an event elicits an emotion, the kind of emotion it elicits (e. g., joy, sadness) and the intensity of the elicited emotion (e.g., weak joy, intense joy). Insights and blind spots of the cognitivist theory of emotions. In one model, the complex emotions could arise from cultural conditioning or association combined with the basic emotions. In the Cannon-Bard theory, Walter Bradford Cannon argued against the dominance of the James-Lange theory regarding the physiological aspects of emotions in the second edition of Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage. Working independently, they developed the James-Lange theory, a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions. Explanations > Theories > Cognitive Appraisal Theories of Emotion. The theory lost favour in the 20th Century, but has regained popularity more recently due largely to theorists such as John Cacioppo, António Damásio, Joseph E. LeDoux and Robert Zajonc who are able to appeal to neurological evidence. Les fonctions cognitives ce sont donc différentes facettes de la cognition (de la pensée humaine), qui ont chacune leur rôle, et qui nous permettent de réaliser toutes nos actions. The sociology of emotions also focuses on general attitude changes in a population. The University of Queensland hosts EmoNet([1]), an email distribution list representing a network of academics that facilitates scholarly discussion of all matters relating to the study of emotion in organizational settings. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation displayed that emotion. He posited eight primary emotion dimensions arranged as four pairs of opposites. E… Définition: Émotion. They often involve so-called controlled processes, such as when the pursuit of a goal (e.g., maintaining information in mind) needs to be protected from interference (e.g., a distracting stimulus). cognition \kɔɡ.ni.sjɔ̃\ ou \kɔ.ni.sjɔ̃\ féminin (Psychologie) Processus mental qui recouvre principalement l'acquisition du savoir et, en premier lieu, du langage, en passant par la mémorisation, le raisonnement, la prise de conscience des émotions, la perception de l'environnement, etc. Paul Ekman). La définition contemporaine de l’émotion, partagée par la plupart des auteurs, inclut ainsi trois composantes, (1) une composante cognitive , (2) une composante comportementale, et (3) une composante physiologique (Figure 1). Finally, cognitive reappraisal, the emotion regulation strategy, is introduced for the establishment of emotion transition combined with personalized cognition. It is the ability that we have to assimilate and process the information that we receive from … Cognitive emotion regulation strategies were measured Participants on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost always). Kuppens, P., Stouten, J., & Mesquita, B. Cognitive modeling is an area of computer science that deals with simulating human problem solving and mental task processes in a computerized model. The English word 'emotion' is derived from the French word émouvoir. Publié le 1 janvier 1996. Les traits élémentaires de la personnalité 197 1.1 Définitions 197 1.2 Les approches non scientifiques 197 In order to understand how emotions are regulated, it is useful to first consider how they are generated. Although a widespread word, it is not so easy to come up with a generally acceptable definition of emotion. Définition générale. Qu’est-ce que les sciences cognitives ? Par exemple, William James a proposé une définition célèbre de l’émotion : « Les changements corporels suivent immédiatement la perception du fait excitant, et le sentiment que nous avons de ces changements à mesure qu’ils se produisent, c’est l’émotion. In the 20th century, new technologies evolved that are now the mainstay of the methodology of cognitive … This is based on experiments purportedly showing that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of adrenaline. Wikibook Cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience, CNX.ORG: The Psychology of Emotions, Feelings and Thoughts (free online book), Humaine Emotion-Research.net: The Humaine Portal: Research on Emotions and Human-Machine Interaction, PhilosophyofMind.net: Philosophy of Emotions portal, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Theories of Emotion, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Emotion, University of Arizona: Salk Institute: Emotion Home Page, 'Cognitive' versus 'non-cognitive' emotions. Individual differences in emotion components and dynamics. | Finally, some theorists (e.g. in laughter therapy, dance therapy). According to cognitive linguists both emotion and language are seen as complex mental systems consisting of different knowledge subsystems that interact in manifold ways. People often behave in certain ways as a direct result of their emotional state, such as crying, fighting or fleeing. Get XML access to fix the meaning of your metadata. Menzies, R. G., & Clarke, J. C. (1995). When we practice cognitive empathy, we are practicing taking the perspective of another person. love). Bibliographie (sélection d’ouvrages pour pratiquer) Barth B.M., Le savoir en construction, former à une pédagogie de la compréhension, Paris Retz, 1993. In psychiatry, emotions are examined as part of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in humans. The functionalist approach to emotions (e.g. you will attach to that aspect. | The Direction Model predicted that anger, an approach emotion, would activate the left prefrontal cortex. Mood and Memory. Vaut donc mieux approcher As such, within this level of analysis, emotion has been investigated in terms of its cognitive influences. This, argued by Richard Lazarus, is necessary to capture the fact that emotions are about something or have intentionality. We try to regulate our emotions to fit in with the norms of the situation, based on many – sometimes conflicting – demands upon us which originate from various entities studied by sociology on a micro level – such as social roles and 'feeling rules' the everyday social interactions and situations are shaped by – and, on a macro level, by social institutions, discourses, ideologies etc. Schachter, S. (1964). (2004). Social Constructivism. Theoretically, emotion generation can be understood as a process that unfolds over time. Gross. Find out more, (Redirected from Cognitive theory of emotion), "Emotional" redirects here. The list was established in January, 1997 and has over 700 members from across the globe. Nico Frijda) holds that emotions have evolved for a particular function, such as to keep the subject safe. The wordgames anagrams, crossword, Lettris and Boggle are provided by Memodata. Researchers, philosophers, and psychologists have proposed different theories to explain the how and why behind human emotions. As James says 'the perception of bodily changes as they occur IS the emotion.' The two most well-known cognitive theories are the two-factor and the cognitive-mediational theories of emotion. Part of Springer Nature. cognitive change refers to selecting which of the many possible meanings ~e.g., m1, m2, m3! Company Information [21] While the origins of the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical enquiries into emotion,[22] the more modern branch of computer science originated with Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper[23] on affective computing. Définition du mot Emotion Mouvement affectif soudain et intense, entrainant un débordement temporaire du contrôle réflexif sous l'effet d'une stimulation du milieu. Previous research … Evidence of universality in the human case has been provided by Paul Ekman's seminal research on facial expression. Rather the bodily changes themselves perceive the meaningful content of the emotion because of being causally triggered by certain situations. In Buddhism, emotions occur when an object is considered as attractive or repulsive. Not logged in Basic versus complex: where base emotions lead to more complex ones. With the arrival of night-active mammals, circa 180 million years ago, smell replaced vision as the dominant sense, and a different way of responding arose from the olfactory sense, which is proposed to have developed into mammalian emotion and emotional memory. Cereb Cortex, 24 (2014), pp. In the Jurassic Period, the mammalian brain invested heavily in olfaction to succeed at night as reptiles slept — one explanation for why olfactory lobes in mammalian brains are proportionally larger than in the reptiles. Thérapie cognitive et émotions expose de manière synthétique comment les thérapies comportementales et cognitives (TCC) abordent les problèmes émotionnels et leurs interrelations avec les comportements et les cognitions.
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